Student Name: Sarah Hawley
Student Number: 7633846
Date: March 8th, 2011
Reading Summaries
Selection 9 “Human Domination of Earth’s Ecosystems”
As human population and technology have grown rapidly, the degree to which humans are modifying their environment is increasing. All ecosystems on Earth have been influenced by humans in some way. The environment is being modified in the following ways, through land transformation, the alteration of marine ecosystems and biogeochemical cycles and lastly, biotic changes. Land transformation occurs from a variety of human activities that alters the composition and functioning of ecosystems. It is estimated that nearly 39-50% of the land on Earth is degraded by humans as a result of activities such as agriculture, industrial area developments, urban sprawl, resource extraction, forestry and overgrazing. This has vast implications on biodiversity, climate, fragmentation of wildlife and pollution. These causes and the mitigation of their consequences rely on social and economic changes in how land value is perceived. The alteration of marine ecosystems is caused by population density near most coastal regions. Coastal wetlands, upwelling areas and continental shelf systems are exploited by humans for primary productions such as fishing. Overfishing leads to the loss of equilibrium in the ecosystem as a whole, which poses a threat for depletion and ultimately loss of biological diversity in the region. Furthermore, there has been an increase of algae blooms in marine ecosystems, largely due to an abundance of nutrients in the water and this results in the death of many fish species. Alterations of biogeochemical cycles have large implications because they are the basic cycles that support life. The first is carbon, and carbon dioxide is essential for photosynthesis which is the driving force behind the oxygen we intake. Increases in carbon dioxide levels have been caused by fossil fuel emissions from human activity and this will have vast effects on global climates. The hydrological cycle is being impacted in the following ways; impeding river flows for energy generation, agriculture, transport and flood control, and by using freshwater wastefully. Alterations to this cycle can affect climate. Furthermore, biotic changes such as the rate of extinction have been steadily increasing since the time of human dominance. There has also been the introduction of invasive species to ecosystems, which poses as a threat to the ability of native species to compete for food and reproduce.
Selection 29 “Environmental, Energetic, and Economic Comparisons of Organic and Conventional Farming Systems”
The use of chemicals and fertilizers in modern agriculture is having large implications on environmental degradation and health issues. Such effects are caused by soil runoff that is high in nitrogen fertilizer concentrations and this results in adverse effects on marine ecosystems and ultimately the collapse of fisheries. Excessive fertilizer application and soil erosion are also negative aspects of conventional farming practices. The alternative to this is organic farming, which can achieve high crop yields, diversity, quality and economic opportunities within the farming community without the use of chemicals.
The Rodale Institute Farming Systems Trial took place between 1981 and 2002 and it examined three cropping methods; conventional cropping, organic animal-based cropping, and organic legume-based cropping. The conventional crop system was essentially a monoculture in that, chemicals and fertilizers were used to eliminate unwanted pests. It operated on a five year crop rotation system between corn and soybeans. The organic animal-based cropping system utilized grain crop productions to feed livestock and a crop rotation system between corn, soybeans, wheat and alfalfa. This system did not rely on chemical inputs for weed control and it used cattle manure for nutrients. The organic legume based system produced grains without fertilizers and chemical inputs but rather it utilized manure crops. The results under normal precipitation conditions favoured the conventional system in terms of crop yield, though very close. The crop yields under drought conditions showed the opposite results. Both organic crops produced significantly more than the conventional farming system. In terms of soil conditions and biodiversity within these systems, the organic crops had higher soil carbon levels and water levels than the conventional crop. This allowed for the organic crops to be more resilient in drought conditions and also decreases the amount of runoff, which can be harmful to nearby ecosystems. The organic crops also required less fossil fuel energy to be sustained, which reduced their overall contribution to carbon dioxide emissions. There are several issues associated with organic agriculture, such as a lack of adequate nutrients to produce a sufficient crop yield and weed control. These problems can be mitigated with the use of extended crop rotations, more nitrogen-nutrient input to the crop system and raising levels of soil carbon.
Selection 41 “Women’s Indigenous Knowledge and Biodiversity Conservation”
Third world economies rely on biodiversity for survival. Biodiversity is not possible without sustainable practices that ensure conservation of valuable resources. In the developed world, sustainable practices are often ruled as primitive and lacking the technological advances of modern society. The conception that diverse productions are consequently limited in production, however the opposite is true. Highly industrialized and mechanized farming for example, requires far more input and fewer employees. Therefore, diverse crops with frequent rotation that requires many workers to maintain not only preserve natural resources but allow for many employment opportunities. The role of women in agriculture is imperative to diversity and sustainability; however their efforts are often hard to measure because of the variety of tasks they accomplish for their communities and families. Also, it is often not market related but despite this however, it requires vast skill and understanding of how agricultural systems are structured in terms of ideal climatic conditions for growing, seed preparation and how to cultivate a variety of crops sustainably. In rural India, women are critically important to the dairy industry because they have practices that are dissimilar from modern and advance methods of dairy farming. They breed and feed many different farm animals. Furthermore, in the forestry industry, their knowledge contributes to how various types of wood and species interact for agricultural purposes. Culture and diversity are equally important and are preserved in unison. They are not conserved on the basis of scientific knowledge but rather on the basis of sustainable balance that has been practices from thousands of years. The main difference between developed and developing countries and how they perceive biodiversity is the concept of uniformity. The developed world has created an unnatural system of agricultural that is dependent on high chemical and energy inputs from a finite resource. Additionally, genetically engineered crops have created a monoculture that is highly vulnerable and potentially more toxic, less nutritious, antibiotic resistant, a cause of allergens, and could alter ecosystems as a whole.
Activity- “Al Gore's New Thinking on the Climate Crisis”
The activity I chose to do for my blog assignment three is a video of a speaker on TED entitled, “Al Gore’s new thinking on the climate crisis”. It features Al Gore and his ideologies regarding the environmental crisis facing the global community today, as well as his proposed solutions. His discussion commences with the relation of religion to optimism. He proposed that just as religion is more than a belief, but learned behaviours; optimism necessitates action. In order to make changes and be optimistic that such changes can occur, it requires more than a belief, but rather affirmative action. The climate crisis must be solved by a change not only in individual behaviour adaptations, such as switching to higher efficiency light bulbs and hybrid vehicles, but in a collective change in government policies and how communities perceive this issue. In the government today, there is a strong belief that global climate change is caused by human impacts on the environment; however it is regarded with little priority for mitigation and action plans. There is an obvious lack of urgency. Environmental problems are categorized into three categories; local, regional and global. Each type of issue requires a different approach to create a solution. The environmental crisis facing the world today is on a global scale and in order to develop a plan of action, there must be a global effort and united understanding of the emergency environmental degradation is presenting.
Ice sheets are melting extensively, resulting in coastal erosion and environmental pressures on the remaining land. Moreover, as the environment rapidly changes there are impacts to ecosystems which rely on specific condition in which to live; such as a certain range of temperatures and key food sources. However, as temperatures have been warming, the response of northern ecosystems has been the loss of biodiversity, natural habitats, and relocation of many species further north or around human developments.
Melting Ice Sheets in Greenland (Source: http://www.metro.co.uk/news/93109-red-alert-as-climate-reaches-tipping-point)
Of all the countries that consume oil, the United States uses the greatest amount. However, the rate at which developing countries are consuming oil is steadily increasing and this contributes to CO2 emissions heavily. Solutions to fight poverty in the developing world have often been mitigated with economic development and unfortunately, many countries perceive oil consumption as the key to a higher standard of living. In reality, thriving economically is dependent upon environmental protection measures. Without a healthy, resilient environment, the sustainability of any economic endeavours will be minimal. Technologies are available to make changes and prevent further hydrocarbon development in poor countries. Investments in solar, wind energy, conservation, efficiency is key. Investing in carbon based economies, such as the tar sands, is simply exploiting a resource that will inevitably disappear and it promotes a lifestyle that is limited by sustainability. Gore suggests that solutions in the developed world should be focused primarily on “putting a price on carbon”, such as with the CO2 Tax. There was a campaign in Australia that promoted awareness of environmental issues through the media and it was highly successful, largely because many people of this region had experienced a severe drought, which caused economic implications to the agricultural economy and they understood firsthand the effects of global climate change. Australia joined Kyoto and the environmental crisis became a government priority, which I believe is essential in generating change on the global level.
(Source: http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/kyoto_protocol_2002_target_status)
This map represents the carbon emissions status of countries that have ratified the Kyoto Protocol in 2002. The countries coloured in green are ones that have reached their Kyoto target and the maroon, pink, orange and yellow are countries that must reduce their emissions to meet the requirements set in place by the Kyoto agreement. Canada must reduce emissions by more than 20% to reach the target.
Towards the end of Al Gore’s discussion, he spoke of the many distractions that society has to deter change and prevent action against this evident crisis. However, there is still hope and we have been presented a very important choice. In order to face the planetary emergency posed by degrading human activities, the issue must be perceived as a priority not only for government ideologies, but for this generation as a whole. History has proved that generations have eliminated the prominence of racial hatred and gender discrimination.
Reflections
Blog Reflection #1- Consider your food system. What do you like about it? Dislike about it? Consider taste, nutrition, cost, equity, and environmental costs.
Blog Reflection #1- Consider your food system. What do you like about it? Dislike about it? Consider taste, nutrition, cost, equity, and environmental costs.
As the human race has developed and multiplied, the functionality of our ecosystem has been jeopardized because there is such a vast strain on the Earth of a high demand of finite resources and space. The dangers in this growing disconnect between humans and their environment is that there is a lack of understanding in how linked we are with each part of our ecosystem. This is exemplified in industrialized and mechanized agriculture that relies on high chemical inputs for profit and surplus, at the cost of biodiversity and environmental degradation due to pesticides and monocultures. Anthropocentric activities are also seen with urbanization, the sprawl of cities that has led to ecosystem destruction and fragmentation of wildlife and fast food trends that make cheap food easily accessible. The way in which we acquire and prepare food is so fundamentally different from our ancestors, not only in terms of animal humanity issues but the overall nutrition and cost to our society’s health. The concept of hunting or fishing for one’s own food and preparing it, is so disconnected from the average urban dwellers way of life. There is this heavy reliance on highly unsustainable systems to provide this food for us in a very convenient and inexpensive way that maintains a sense of ignorance in regards to how the snow peas ended up in the produce section of a local Safeway. The important thing to most consumers is appearance and cost, not where the food was acquired, raised or produced or the processes utilized to make it so perfect in shape and colour. The present food system has the triggered an homogenization of our society that has hastened urban development, triggered an epidemic of malnourished and obese populations and decreased the array of wholesome foods and the market in which to supply them due to high costs. In a way, food is a very social experience and a learned behaviour. Very early on in life, children are taught how to eat properly and prepare their food and these prominent foods vary between cultures. Unfortunately, it would seem that the prominent foods in the North American diet are the product of fast food chains, mechanized agriculture, meat and dairy products that are teeming with antibiotics and growth hormones. This isn’t a function of a passed down culture or food practices that have been important to native families for many generations; but rather the scheme of corporate companies to fuel unaware consumers with nutritionally lacking food. Not only does this support an epidemic of obesity, but it supports highly unsustainable food systems that operate on the basis of high economic gains at the cost of environmental degradation. Yet despite this, the desire for inexpensive and easily accessible food is growing and any system with a high demand will not implement change, no matter the environmental or health costs.
North America has become defined by high consumption. (Source: http://www.amazon.com/Fast-Food-Nation-Eric-Schlosser/dp/0395977894)
There has been a vast transition in the practices of agriculture and in fact, industrial farming practices and mechanization as taken over much of modern agriculture. The pesticides, fertilizers and genetic modification of crops has reduced the biodiversity of arable land regions and created a monoculture. This system has become highly susceptible to super weeds and it poses as an environmental pollutant whereby applied chemicals enter waterways and leech into the soil. Furthermore, animals that are grown to produce eggs, milk, beef and chicken, are fed antibiotics and kept in extremely close confinements in order to maximize production for a given space. This creates vulnerability because the animals are becoming resistant to antibiotics so if an epidemic were to occur, entire farms would be wiped out. The major issue here is that not only is modern agriculture and animal production highly vulnerable and unhealthy, but it is dominating today’s grocery stores and a large portion of consumers are unaware of process involved in producing their food. Wholesome, natural food is rare and choices are limited. 84% of meat production is controlled by three major companies, so essentially you have the choice of inexpensive, feedlot grown beef or more expensive organic free range beef. For impoverished families, single mothers and university students on a tight budget, paying extra for what they believe is the same thing, is not economically viable. So you end up seeing countless grocery store super centres and Wal-Marts that do not even offer organic foods from sustainable farms, because the market is lacking and there are so few farmers who are able to afford sustainable practices.
Farmer’s Market (Source: http://www.scheeringafarms.net/Farmers-Markets.html)
The main issue that I have with the present food system is a lack of choice and a lack of awareness. There are so many impoverished families that have many financial obligations and the last thing they should be concerned about it being able to provide their family with nutritional food. Furthermore, lack of adequate funds shouldn’t limit the ability of a parent to teach their children how to eat healthily. But how can they do this, how can even a wealthy family do this in the majority of grocery stores today? Genetically modified foods are not properly labelled, produce is covered with chemicals for preservation that are arduous to wash off and fast food and restaurants have become socially acceptable and even desirable. Aside from the vast implications and potential hazards associated with genetically modified organisms, it represents a movement of agriculture that is unsustainable. The day that producers are forced to label genetically modified foods, will be the day that consumers are given the choice to provide their families with healthier, wholesome, and naturally occurring foods. With aware and conscience consumers, the demise of genetically modified production will come. It was once said by H.L. Mencken that, “What we need in this country is a general improvement in eating. We have the best raw materials in the world, both quantitatively and qualitatively, but most of them are ruined in the process of preparing them for the table.” In order to provide families with nutritional, high quality and economically viable options, there must be a transformation in the way our present food system operates. Such changes can be implemented with education initiatives to raise awareness about supporting local organic farmers, growing small subsistence gardens for each family and how to decrease the intake of processed foods. The produce grown in small gardens or by the means of organic agriculture is not only far more nutritious, but it has a better taste, quality and is less costly to the environment.
Blog Reflection #2- What role, if any, should zoos play in conservation/education? Is it ethical to keep animals in zoos? If so, what size/type of animals or zoo? Do you enjoy visiting zoos?
The perservation of biodiversity within natural habitats is vastly significant in protecting the resilsience and survial of many native species and their ecosystems. Zoos, parks and natural reserves are the first step in achieving this perservation because it protects the region and it’s native species from the effects of urban sprawl and industrial development. The main objective is to limit contact from outside influences, such as humans, pollution and non-native species, or any other disturbances that may contribute to the extinction of a species. Evidently, zoos can defend species populations, however there are issues associated with these protected regions. Many parks that are open to public access are covered with asphalt for roads and bike paths for recreational use and this creates straight lines and man-made boundaries that would never have occurred naturally. The limited space for zoos creates fragmentation and isolation of wildlife, as they can no longer have free range of movement in and out of the park boundaries simply because their natural habitat does not exist beyond it. Genetic isolation is also an issue with fragmentation caused by parks because animals are limited in who they can mate with, which poses serious problems for genetic diversity and consequently, the resilience of a species. It also increases the opportunity for interaction between humans and wildlife.
(Source: http://www.dontpaniconline.com/magazine/zoos)
With that being said, zoos provide the opportunity for biologists and researchers to observe species and learn about their behaviours and diets. Many zoos also provide educational classes and tours about the animals in the zoo, as well as basic information on the species and how they live in their natural environments. Furthermore, many species on the brink of extinction are brought to zoos to be monitored and breed. This increases the likelihood of the survival of the species because they are receiving adequate nutrition and not facing many of the stresses that they would have normally encountered in the wild. However, some species to not adapt well to captivity and often their average life span is reduced and several deaths have occurred due to human interactions. It is for these reasons that I believe zoos should play a minimal role in conservation and education. They should promote researchers studying animals in their natural habitats and then share this information with the public, so that there will be an increased awareness and respect for many species. Research programs should be set in place to monitor and understand ecological processes that are unique to specific ecosystem. This is essential in assessing how the landscapes changing in response to global climate change and human impacts, as well as determining what affect this is having on the species populations, landscape features, water availability and variety of infectious diseases. This knowledge is so valuable and yet so rare because of limited funding for research projects. Zoos should fun these research projects instead of expanding exhibits that isolate wildlife. Animals have a purpose that extends far beyond our viewing pleasure and unfortunately, removing them from their natural ecosystem may in fact do more harm than good. If a species is near extinction, removing them for that environment will only had more stress to that niche because it’s predators will have a decreased food source and its prey will multiply. The issues causing the species to reach extinction are what zoos should also focus their attention on, because simply removing them and placing them in captivity to ensure survival, does not increase their chances of one day being able to re-enter their niche. It is likely that the stress factors; such a climate change, human development and pollution will still be there when they return.
It does not seem ethical to keep animals in zoos, simply because it increases human interactions and it is based on an anthropocentric view, in the sense that these animals were removed from their natural environments to benefit humans. In creates an awareness of animals in terms of being able to view them in a place other than books or the TV, however zoos are not naturally occurring and they create a disruption within fragile ecosystems that rely on each living organism as an interconnected system. Many of the animals that are put in zoos are restricted to very small dens and cages. This conflicts with migration patterns and creates man-made boundaries that animals would never have had to abide by without human development. Furthermore, the transportation of animals to the zoo is often very stressful and some animals have died before ever reaching the zoo. This fragmentation is exemplified with the new Arctic exhibit that is being built at the Assiniboine Zoo. Situated on 10 acres within the zoo, the exhibit will feature an array of Arctic species such as caribou, muskox, seals, tundra swans, snowy owls, arctic fox and arctic char.Though this may promote understanding of Arctic species, there are issues associated with keeping these species in captivity. Among these issues are, polar bears have very large home ranges and they are highly variable. The average home range of a polar bear in the wild is 50-60,000 kilometres squared. The size of the exhibit is only a fraction of this, and assuredly the entire exhibit will not be reserved for polar bears alone, but many other species that also have distinct migration patterns. The zoo plans to have six polar bears in the exhibit, however in their natural environment, it would be arduous to find six polar bears within a ten acre area. This could increase the stress level of many of the polar bears at the zoo because their sense of territory will be heightened. Moreover, caribou have a very distinct migration patterns and instinctively they migrate specific routes in the North. While in captivity, what will happen to this instinct and desire to wander? It is for these reasons that I believe zoos do not practice ethical manners of keeping animals in captivity.
Arctic Exhibit at Assiniboine Zoo, entitled The Journey to Churchill. (Source: http://markosun.wordpress.com/2011/03/02/striking-new-polar-bear-exhibit-to-be-built-at-assiniboine-park-zoo-in-winnipeg/)
Link: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=71H1Ycgx1e4
Growing up, I have many happy memories of visiting the zoo with my parents, grandparents and on school field trips. It was one of the first places where I could actually experience being close to animals that would normally exist so far away from the natural ecosystem of Winnipeg. However, seeing these animals does not mean that I in anyway understood them, where they came from, how they got here, and what implications captivity was having on their well-being. The information boards placed in front of the animal exhibits were, and continue to be there to educate visitors on the nautral habitat, diet and behaviours of the animals. Despite this however, I for one, hardly ever read them. I merely observed the animal in it's artifical habitat created by humans. So in reality, what I was learning about these animals, was their behaviours in captivity. Which I can imagine are distinctly seperate from their behaviours and habits in the wild. I still enjoy visiting the zoo however I know understand the implications to the ethical well-being of animals. After taking this course, I may think twice about the impact zoos have on animals as well as the ability zoos have to actually play a role in conservation and education.
Note Reflections
It was once said by Martin Chungong Ayafor, who is the Chairman of the Sierra Leone Panel of Experts, that “’Diamonds are forever’ it is often said. But lives are not. We must spare people the ordeal of war, mutilations and death for the sake of conflict diamonds.” In a class lecture, the topic of blood diamonds, also known as conflict diamonds, was discussed. After having seen the movie entitled, Blood Diamond, I had a general sense of the vast socioeconomic and violence issues related to diamonds that are used to fund wars in destitute countries. However, I had never considered the cause of this desire for diamonds. Why did they hold so much power? How could they represent love in one country and death in another? Evidently, the disconnect between source extraction and the consumer has caused an unfortunate oblivion. Much like North America’s present food system. In Angola and Sierra Leone, blood diamonds continue to fund rebel groups such as the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) and the Revolutionary United Front (RUF). Many children living in these countries are recruited to fight with these rebel groups at very young ages. Below is a picture of a young boy, who was recruited at the age of eleven.
In 2002, the United Nations General Assembly recognized the pressing need to prevent the continuation of violence in these countries, furthermore they adopted a resolution to terminate the source; blood diamonds. In doing so, they limited the ease in which blood diamonds could be sold, traded and moved to international markets. Legitimate diamonds are distinguished from blood diamonds with a Certificate of Origin, which only government controlled diamonds end up in the market. Unfortunately, in poor countries with limited government funding for such endeavours, the Certificate of Origin is often forged and illegitimate. Additional controls by foreign and local governments and the diamond industry are needed to ensure that such a regime is effective. These measures might include the standardization of the certificate among diamond exporting countries, transparency, auditing and monitoring of the regime and new legislation against those who fail to comply. There must be peace and proper management in diamond producing regions because with peace will come the potential for economic development. Economic development will be the first step in building an infrastructure based on legitimate mining as an economic mainstay.
While watching the evening news on CBC on March 6th, 2011, there was a segment on rising obesity levels in Canadian youth. This reminded me of the discussion covered in class regarding present food systems, including the rising trends of fast foods and nutritionally lacking foods. The segment proposed that childhood obesity is linked to a lack of nutritious foods that are affordable and widley availalbe in most supermarkets. The following is a link to an article entitled, "Curbing Childhood Obesity: An Overview of the Federal, Provincial and Territorial Framework for Action to Promote Healthy Weights." http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/hp-ps/hl-mvs/framework-cadre/intro-eng.php
